Clustering Techniques in Oodbms (Using Objectstore)

Introduction Performance of a database can be greatly impacted by the manner in which data is loaded. This fact is true regardless of when the data is loaded; whether loaded before the application(s) begin accessing the data, or concurrently while the application(s) are accessing the data. This paper will present various strategies for locating data as it is loaded into the database and detail the performance implications of those strategies. Data Clustering, Working Sets, and Performance With ObejctStore access to persistent data can perform at in-memory speeds.In order to achieve in-memory speeds, one needs cache affinity. Cache affinity is the generic term that describes the degree to which data accessed within a program overlaps with data already retrieved on behalf of a previous request. Effective data clustering allows for better, if not optimal, cache affinity. Data density is defined as the proportion of objects within a given storage block that are accessed by a client durin g some scope of activation. Clustering is a technique to achieve high data density. The working set is defined as the set of database pages a client needs at a given time.ObjectStore is a page-based architecture which performs best when the following goals are met: †¢ Minimize the number of pages transferred between the client and server †¢ Maximize the use of pages already in the cache In order to achieve these goals, the working set of the application should be optimal. The way to achieve an optimal working set is via data clustering. With good data clustering more data can be accessed in fewer pages; thus a high data density rate is obtained. A higher data density results in a smaller working set as well as a better chance of cache affinity. A smaller working set results in fewer page transfers.The following sections in this paper will explain several clustering patterns/techniques for achieving better performance via cache affinity, higher data density and a smaller wo rking set. NOTE: clustering is used in this paper as a concept of locality of reference. The term is not being used to refer to the physical storage unit available in ObjectStore. ObjectStore does present the user with a choice for location of allocations: with the database, within a particular segment, within a particular cluster. For the remainder of this paper, the discussion of cluster is a conceptual one, not the ObjectStore physical one.Database Design Process Database design is one of the most important steps in designing and implementing an ObjectStore application. The following steps are pre-requisites for a database design: 1) Identify key use cases (ones which need to be fast and/or are run frequently) 2) Identify the object(s) used by the use cases called out in step 1 3) Identify the object(s) that are read or updated during the use cases called out in step 1 The focus of clustering efforts should be on the database objects which are used in the high priority use cases identified above.Begin to cluster based on one use case, and then validate with others. The database design strategies which lend themselves to achieving the optimal working set are: †¢ Clustering †¢ Partitioning There are several different types of techniques which result in data being well clustered: †¢ Isolate Index †¢ Pooling †¢ Object Modeling Data Clustering Clustering is a technique used to achieve high data density. Another definition of clustering is a grouping of objects together. If a use case requires objects A, B and C to operate, then those objects should be co-located for optimal data density.If upon loading the database, those objects are physically allocated close to one another, then we say we have clustered those objects. Assume that the size of the three objects combined is less than the size of a physical database page. The clustering leads to high data density because when we fetch the page with object A, we will also get objects B and C. In this particular case, we need just one page transfer to get all objects required for our use case. To accomplish good clustering, one must know the use cases and the objects involved in those use cases.Given that knowledge, the goals of clustering are: †¢ Cluster objects together which are accessed together †¢ Separate (de-cluster, or partition – we will discuss partitioning in detail later in this paper) objects which are never accessed together. This includes separating frequently accessed data from rarely accessed data. Partitioning Partitioning is a strategy to isolate subsets of objects in different physical storage units. By definition, if two objects are in different partitions, they are de-clustered. The two goals of partitioning are to gain isolation and to increase data density.Isolation is desirable when concurrent access is required. The scope of this paper is not intended to cover concurrency. For that reason our discussion of partitioning will be rather brief. Although partitioning is intended for isolating objects, its use can improve data density. This may seem, by definition, to be counter intuitive. Let us use an example to illustrate. Imagine a grocery store. If you were in need of a box of cereal, you would go down the cereal aisle. If the grocer has done his job correctly, the aisle (or some number of shelves in the aisle) will be populated ONLY with boxes of cereal.Because other items have been located in their respective aisles/shelves, the entire cereal aisle is dense with cereal. If the grocer had not done the job correctly, a given section of a shelf might have (for instance) boxes of noodles, cans of vegetables, and bags of chips. In this scenario, the shelf does not have good data density for the goal of obtaining a box of cereal. Recall the definition of data density: the proportion of objects within a given storage block that are accessed by a client during some scope. Our scope is to obtain a box of cereal. Our storage block is the aisle or a shelf. If the shelf in question contains many items other than cereal, then we have poor data density. If, on the other hand, we partition the non-cereal items to be in different aisles, then the cereal aisle would contain only cereal and thus a high data density would Conclusion The way in which data is loaded into the database can have significant impact on the performance of an application. Careful analysis of the use cases for an application should allow key objects to be identified. Once key objects are identified, a clustering strategy can be planned.Several of the techniques presented here can allow for a clustering strategy that will boost performance far beyond any tuning that might be done after the database is loaded and the application delivered. It is often the case that several techniques can be combined; an application need not restrict itself to the use of just one technique. The goal of clustering is to reduce your working set siz e; yield higher data density; and reduce the number of pages which need to be transferred between the application and the ObjectStore server.

Kfc – the Best Fast-Food Restaurant

EBA203 UI -:Nguy? n Xuan Luan: 100035 [pic] 1. Why is KFC famous? Kentucky Fried Chicken, better known as KFC, is the largest chicken restaurant KFC is an internationally fast food industry in the world. KFC began with Colonel Harland Sanders, in America in the year 1939. They have the main ambition to increase & maintain the quality in fast food industry. Their aim is to capture the fast food market. Every day, more than 12 million customers are served at KFC restaurants in 109 countries and territories around the world more than 15,000 units around the world.When you try to experience with the services, the qualities, the taste, the price and the conveniences in KFC’s restaurants, you can find that the successes of KFC in worldwide market isn’t random. It relate closely to many factors, such as brand development strategy, strategic of management, development of human resources and the particular secret of KFC is market strategy in the environment â€Å"International Culture† †¢ Quality is the number one. In addition kfc famous brand, there are many other fast food brands besides like: Lotteria .. etc.The reason why KFC can rise leading full of fierce competition due to continuously improve product quality and service quality, the quality of raw materials. In addition, KFC through reputable agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) certification testing and using chicken is fully cooked to ensure hygienic; KFC also through the mass media committed to 100% KFC chicken products sold are processed at high temperatures during the period from 2 minutes 30 seconds to 14 minutes 30 seconds, so consumers can feel secure Customer dung.Khach Centre not only enjoy quality service at the restaurant, but also can enjoy the food service brought to you quickly, hygiene, punctuality, service personnel with a caring attitude affable and polite [pic][pic] †¢ Select the correct location to store construction program of action Location is an important factor leading business in the field of food and drinks, especially fast food. The selected location is not only a prerequisite, â€Å"golden key† to decide the success of the brand but also the premise and foundation for brand can provide standard services, single simple and professional.Therefore, KFC attaches great importance to the selection of sites for a fast food restaurant. Often, KFC selected locations to be approved by two levels, local companies and corporations. The probability of success in the site selection process KFC business almost reached 100%. Once through market surveys seriously, KFC always choose the big city is the target market to develop supply store. [pic][pic] †¢ Flavor featured, affordable Crispy lemon chicken is seasoned by lemon fiber sprinkled all chicken pieces makes the dish more delicious, more attractive.Diners as awaken all the senses at the same time, from straw yellow chicken pieces to the aromatic smell of spices prep ared meticulously and when finished enjoying brings balance the ease and unforgettable. [pic][pic] In 1939, Sanders has invented a unique Kentucky chicken recipes with 11 ingredients and flavors of different herbs and he called his dish â€Å"food replacement meals at home† for family busy family, with very line hopvoi the price of each object income, the portion corresponding to James can replace daily meals but still enough, everyone can enjoy KFC is easy and convenient KFC limit: Besides the convenience of restaurants, there are certain limits. Today, with the development of economy, people tend to be simple fast to meet demand, there are many fast food stores to grow, with new flavors, intense competition with KFC. Also, today, in Asia in general and VET in particular, fast food accounts for 10% of the menu of the people, not the majority as other countries such as: England, United States †¦. South, people still preferred meal, with the fussy and more nutritious.Fina lly, fast food is concentrated in some parts, certain age, can not cover all the subjects, the difference in food culture is also a major obstacle affecting the development of kfc 3. If you are in charge of the KFC brand expansion in Vietnam market I will proceed as follows: a: Market research – building goals Situation Analysis of socio-economic, cultural and Vietnam, the current status of development of the fast food market in Vietnam to have accurate assessment of market size, growth rate and the level of competition on truong.Phan of the strengths, limitations and dynamics of KFC before and after the implementation of the strategy to penetrate the Vietnamese market. Evaluate the successes and limitations of the Marketing-Mix strategy of KFC in the past, and propose some ideas and measures to KFC continues to maintain its position in the Vietnamese market in the near future . [pic][pic] b. Overview vietnam fast food market Vietnam – a country that ranks as the most populous country in the world, ith a young population structure and economic growth potential is considered as an attractive market for the food business group fast (fast food). According to estimates by market survey company Euromonitor, sales of fast food areas in Vietnam is still modest, from 12. 5 billion in 1999, increased to 19. 6 billion in 2002, fell to 13. 5 billion winter 2004 and from 16 billion in 2007 to approximately 20. 1 billion in 2009. Only about 10% of the population have used fast food habits.This number is too small compared with neighboring countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, China, India has more than 70% of consumers eat fast food at least one time / month. And about 90% of the number of Vietnamese consumers are not familiar with the fast food will provide an opportunity for entrepreneurs to exploit. In short, if I was manager in charge of expansion kfc Vietnam, in the current era of knowledge economy, ahead of the competition is extremely fierce and fierce international market, to develop the brand, businesses need to focus on improving the quality of services, ranging from visible to invisible. pplication of advanced marketing strategies, particularly marketing strategy in environments with â€Å"culture†, to the consumers living in different cultures, whether China, Japan and Vietnam are remembered this brand even once. In the context of globalization, modern businesses need to pay special attention to the integration of culture; focuses on developing marketing strategies such as strengthening cultural product development, brand building, building develop corporate culture, at the same time, in the fierce competition of the market, faced with the concept of different values f each object, each ethnic group, businesses need to know to apply flexible strategies sales marketing strategy, which can stand on the international market, creating a powerful breakthrough in the process of brand development business. [pic][pic] [pic][ pic] Some of my work here is all. students for submission

Eveline – James Joyce (Short Personal Response)

â€Å"Eveline†, is a story about a 19 year old girl who diligently reflects on the life she has had residing in the same town (in Dublin) with her siblings, everyone she knows, and her abusive father whom she labours excessively for to support. This is the same town her mother died in that she now anticipates leaving for Buenos Ayres, with her fiance Frank. The story of Eveline, by James Joyce, handles many interconnected themes such as attachments, escape and identity, which employs great attention to a specific situation that is relatable to almost everyone: the time to leave home.Though Eveline’s acting outlets resemble those prominent to my own, what interests me the most about her story is her overbearing dilemma to either leave a hard, yet full and interesting life, for an easy and safe, though mundane one. The reason this grabs my attention is because, I’ve often pondered about why it would be so hard for me to leave my own strenuous and distressing home, and my exasperating mother that has caused me so many detriments.This curiosity has led me to believe that the harder one has had to work at home to make things work, regardless of the results, the more interesting their history becomes and the stronger their attachment to that life becomes. For anyone that has been in such a situation, it becomes clear frequently, how big of a part this life is to you and that through the struggles you have learned everything that you now know, and this life is the only one you do know.Something less than ‘this life’ may leave someone, such as Eveline, feeling useless and lost, possibly causing them to spin out of control searching for meaning and value in a new life that seems too simple. The reader sees this progression for Eveline as the story starts with her rested against the window where she goes to reflect not only on her self, but the relationship to the place which she sits whilst the evening rolls in. James Joyce wonderfully illustrates that, â€Å"the evening invade[d] the avenue† at the beginning of the story, while she leaned against the window.This was my favourite line of the story though, I did not catch the second meaning of it until after I had read it a few more times. First, it is clear that, with evening coming, this represents for Eveline, that she is running out of time at home (not in a pleasant and welcomes way either, â€Å"invade† is a pretty harsh word); though it is latent to her until the end of the story that, she does have a choice to stay home. At this point her decision is so straight forward that, to even question not leaving with her fiance Frank would be absurd.Second, Joyce cleverly uses the term â€Å"avenue,† not only to describe the roads of the town which is being covered with the turning of day, but also because it represents the clouding or loss of an outlet or rather, an escape. Eveline sits at the window reminiscing the days that weren’t so bad, when her father â€Å"was not so bad† either. This was a time prior, to when her mother died and before the man from Belfast bought the field which the neighbour kids used to play in and turned the old little brown houses in to bright brick and red houses.In other words, the look of her home did change, some people left town, some people died, but the memories did not die and their meaning did not dissipate. This is important because it foreshadows the reluctance Eveline has to leave her home after having the epiphany that, even if she did run away to a new setting, she would not change who either she or her father were. This realization that Eveline has is not one that everyone does when leaving home (or a place of equal meaning), but even those who do, don’t always make the choice to stay as she did.Some readers may be confused when trying to understand why she did not take the obvious route and leave her father and tiring jobs behind to be with a loving, safe, and wonderful guy as Frank appeared to be. I personally do not question it, I embrace it. The conclusion I drew from reading Eveline made me feel more secure about my own reluctance to leave home and the avenues which I extensively burdened with my attempts of escape and survival.My first was a relationship that was so perfect in its own harmony that I depended on it too strongly to the point that I only saw it as my escape, instead of a separate entity of pleasure, love, and divinity. The second, like Eveline was faith, which is somewhat ironic considering I abandoned religion so effortlessly at such a young age. This turn was not because of a new belief in God, it was for the mysticism and miracles it provided for believers. Unfortunately, my abandonment of religion was so easy because it never made sense to me and it was never my own thought.So my ‘turn back’ was rather unsuccessful when it came to making miracles out of heartache but, it did provide me with new ins ight on the meaning of faith and spirituality that brings me a sense of peace. Though it may only be alluded to in my eyes, what I see at the end of this story is a woman, Eveline, who realizes that she is so much more than just a runner. After all she has been through it would just be too easy to get up and leave with Frank. It seems as if she believes she does not deserve the luxury of leaving while simultaneously feeling that she is beyond an escape.

How successful have the Irish Government and the European Central Bank Essay

How successful have the Irish Government and the European Central Bank been in running the Irish economy over the last two years - Essay Example Ever country’s economic policy has a number of generic objectives like attaining economic growth, healthy levels of employment and inflation, increasing price stability and equilibrium on the balance of payments. To this end governments use tools of macro-economic policy, like fiscal, monetary and exchange rate policies (Palmer, n.d). The Irish economy is member of the European Union and controlled by the European Central Bank (ECB) and thus does not have perfect autonomy when it comes to making its economic policy. The ECB has a vested interest in the Euro remaining integrated across Europe and thus the interest rates implemented across all the members of the European Union have a greater agenda than that country’s economy; to keep the Euro healthy. By setting monetary policy and exchange rate, the ECB makes sure that there is price stability. However, since policies are implemented under an umbrella, sometimes decisions of the ECB for the European Union’s greater good may prove to be detrimental for a particular economy which is precisely what happened with Ireland (Palmer, n.d). The Irish crisis hit full swing in 2008 when Lehman Brothers collapsed. Their financial sector was weak and out in the open and vulnerability was high. Ireland found it particularly hard to recover from its substantial overseas debt. Fearing a contagion, the government introduced a blanket liability guarantee; however this back fired severely, destroying Ireland’s credit image and creating political tension for Ireland. (Connor et al., 2010). However, after going through a really bad time, the Irish economy finally showed positive signs in 2010, it was expected that with recovery the economy would gain full strength. The unemployment figures also rose substantially around this time, but subsequently normalized. In the second half of 2010, the Irish government took a large loan from its fellow members of the EU which was aimed at increasing growth and improving the financial system. The new policy saw strong implementation, after the first two quarters a lot of improvement was seen. The policy objectives also aimed at improving employment in economy and improving Ireland’s competitiveness in the global market. Deflation in Ireland finally started lifting off in 2011, prices began rising as factors that had been depressing them were alleviated by the new policy implementation. A jobs initiative was also put forward around the same time with the aim of creating over 20,000 jobs. The economy of Ireland finally recovered in a plan which is divided in five stages. Stage one; export led growth, this is where net exports were increased so that competitiveness would increase. Net exports had increased over 9% by 2010. Stage two; investment, increasing FDI in Ireland helped create demand for it in the world market. Stage three, employment increment, expansion in this area occurs as a joint effect by first two stages. Stage four; improved spending, increase disposable income and consequently spending of households are increased. Stage five; make demand for d omestic goods stronger, this will cause increase in tax collections and economic growth will pick up. (Hickey, 2011). As part of the fixing up of Ireland through the new policy, the government also strengthened the capital base of its domestic banks. This was thought of to have strengthened that sector and eventually Ireland’s financial institutions and markets. (Langedijk, 2011). Summing up, we look at where Ireland stands in 2012 to see whether the policy objectives and vision of the Irish government with respect to its economy have been able to be successful over the last two years. According to this report published by the Department of finance

Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 62

Art - Essay Example This report shows the presentation of two undergraduate students during the 11th annual artistry symposium. A light humor at the beginning signals his commencement of the presentation of his research on Italian futurism and fascism. He begins by digging deep into the historical background of both Italian Futurism and its relationship to fascism. According to the speaker, futurism was an artistic movement and later overtaken by social movement and began in Italy in the early 1900s. The movement held in high esteem themes that were linked to contemporary concepts of the future such as violence, young people, technological development and speed. In addition, the movement spearheaded growth in cars, aero plane and a manufacturing city. According to the author, there is an obvious reality when Italian fascism is linked to futuristic movement in Italy. The roughly thirty minute’s presentation comes to an end when the presenter begins to request for questions from the section of the audience. the interaction from the audience is magnificent as the speaker shows great depth by responding to all the questions and engaging in interactive intellectual debates. Perhaps a personal opinion would rate highly the presentation as it is full of content, the structure of the presentation is effective, though it is non visual, a imaginary picturing of the presentation confirms the same. The presenter must have cone the research well as the material presented is packaged properly with a deep historical connections. A humor at the beginning overshadows everything and eliminates nervousness showed by his involvement in the answers at the end of the presentation. She commences the presentation without acknowledging the audience, at least from the limitations provided by the audio recording. A visual one could have provided sufficient chance to observe her body language. However, her presentation is rich in content, but she blubs in between the presentation

Nursing Bachelor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Nursing Bachelor - Essay Example There are multiple activities with the pressing demand of time, and when I reflect on these events, it seems they could have been catered better with a more effective time management. I had been assigned to this patient who had an anterior cruciate ligament construction in the left knee, and these postoperative patients have multiple requirements. This patient was diabetic and had chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The tasks can be divided into making the bed, recording vital signs and charting them, positioning the patient, feeding her, examining generally and in the operative site, recording the findings in the chart, administering medications, performing common bedside tests, informing the supervisor, and looking out for any complications and reporting them. This seems to be a long list, and I found it is extremely insufficient time within the shift to accomplish all tasks in a proficient and efficient manner. As a result, everything was getting disorganized. I decided to talk to my mentor and seek her advice. She told me that I was not being able to manage time very effectively. Inexperience is indeed a factor, but if the principles of time management are applied to my work, this would ease matters a lot. She talked to me about the importance of time management and also gave me some tips of time management as applicable to our work. ... I decided to apply her principles in work. This happened very soon, where I could optimize my actions on the basis of priority. My patient was shouting in the ward since she had pain, and she wanted me to give an analgesic injection. At the same point in time, she was having a scheduled injection of antibiotics on an 8-hourly dose. The patient's shouting sounded urgent, the pain must have been intolerable, and I assumed a cool composure and decided to attend the injection of the antibiotic first. The antibiotic dose needed to be administered in the right time since it has relationship with concentration of the drug in blood that will kill the bacteria. If it was not injected in the right time, this might cause infection in the postoperative joint, and the whole surgery may be baffled in terms of outcome. I, therefore, prioritized the antibiotic injection against a painkiller shot. I finished the antibiotic and then went ahead to prepare for the pain killer injection. While reflecting on this, I found that I did the right thing, but I was feeling ashamed that I could not suppress my irritation with the patient. This is because I failed to convince myself that as a nurse, I must be clear and confident enough about my different roles and must be able to differentiate those roles on the basis of priority in the ward that applies differently to the same patient in different situations, and that should be guided by importance that can have far-reaching implications in care, never by apparent urgency. I concluded that it is all about being able to attach importance to the activities in different roles in order of gravity is the essence of time management. From the next day onwards, I made a schedule for my work in the ward. I decided that I

International Tourism Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Tourism Management - Essay Example In this concept, the definition of tourism helps to identify all the basic elements associated with the term tourism. The conceptual definition of tourism demonstrates the multi-faceted as well as the multi disciplinary characteristics of tourism. The technical definition of tourism clearly represents what one can understand from the word tourist and what is tourism industry. Technical definition helps to specify the different factors which help to recognize a set of people as traveler, as well as grouping different organization as a part of tourism sector. (Inkson and Minnaert, 2012, p.15). 2. Definition of Tourism: According to Inkson and Minnaert (2012), the movement of the people to different places outside their normal place of work or residence, various kinds of activities which they perform while staying on those places and different facilities developed by several organization as well as the concerned governing authority of that particular place is known as tourism. (Inkson a nd Minnaert, 2012, p.16). There are three basic elements associated with the tourism. These are dynamic element, destination element and consequential element. Dynamic Element: It is associated with the demand for and different types of tourism. According to their views, these forms are subject to change. Destination Element: It is associated with the tourist as well as the characteristics of them. ... (Inkson and Minnaert, 2012, p. 17). 3. Types of Tourism System: There are different kinds of tourism industry present in the tourism system. These are aviation industry, railways industry, tour and travel operators, hotel industry etc. In the tourism system, all these industries are interrelated with one another. With the development of science and technology, as the time moves on the tourism system also started to develop as well. The main focus of this paper is to discuss about different factors associated with the tourism industry, the growth in this industry in last 10 years with the continuous development in the technology and communication sector. Apart from that, a detail discussion will be done with the focus on aviation industry, its growth , development that happen to this sector due to technological and communication improvement and role played by the aviation sector in the overall growth of the tourism industry. 4. Aviation and Tourism: Transport is an indispensable part of tourism, providing the very important link between the tourist generating areas and destinations. Good convenience, which is determined by the transport services provided, is a basic condition for the expansion of any tourist destination. Moreover, the transport industry can be a main beneficiary of tourism because of the extra passenger demand that may be generated. Aviation is a progressively more important mode of transportation for tourism markets. At the same time geography has meant that, in modern times, air travel has always been the central mode for long distance travel and as much global tourism moves towards deregulation, and more specifically with the emergence of the low cost carrier

Personal Management Framework Paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Personal Management Framework Paper - Assignment Example o use their physical attributes to do their work and knowledge workers are referred to the group of workers who complete their task using their intelligence rather than their body, e.g. technologists or software developers. This concept was previously introduced by Karl Marx and after that many authors, publishers and theorists tried to conclude to the concept, but their drawback was that none of them had practical experience about the scenario. Shortly, a name was introduced in the concept having both theoretical and practical knowledge of the working environment. Fredrick Winslow Taylor was the first person to relate the pre-assumed concept of productivity of workers with the reality which in turn helped the concept to focus on increasing the productivity of workers and develop the economy (Drucker, 1999, p. 79). The concept since then, passing through different phases came to be known as Taylor’s Scientific Management Theory. As well as many other researchers and theorists namely, Gilbreth, Maslow and others made their own conclusions and theories. All these approaches are from then practiced in the practical work field with an aim to enhance the productivity of workers. This paper shall aim at relating the assumptions, values, beliefs and modern day practices with the different related theories and try to conclude a relative measure for the betterment of the productivity of both knowledge and manual workers. With due course of time the organizational structure today; have become more challenging, huge and complex. This change has resulted to the inappropriate evaluation of the worker productivity in many cases. To analyze and improve worker productivity no particular theory can prove itself perfect in today’s situation. Notably, most of the management theories were introduced during the period of Industrial Revolution when the environment was not at all stable as well as the theme of management was getting expanded to the sphere of science rather than

Ocean Carriers Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ocean Carriers - Term Paper Example A discount rate of nine percent is used by the ocean carrier. Having in mind that, during the 8 days, the customers would not be charged and each and every new vessel will be devaluated or depreciated on the basis of a straight line for over twenty five years. The market rate that prevails in the daily spot is averagely twenty two thousand ($20,000) dollars every day. A discount rate of nine percent is used by the ocean carrier. While viewing at the projections carried out by analysts of Linn and present growth expectation in the ore and iron markets, the long run view for the sinking bulk industry look promising (Chandraiah 88). The increasing exports of ore and iron will make the demand for sinking to increase. It may also permit shipping firms to enlarge their rates. Nevertheless, as rates start to drop immensely and every shipping vessel needs a huge long-term investment, much risk is attached to the firm. Thus, projections should not, in any way, be considered entirely reliable. In the following year, every day hire rates would likely decline as the ore and iron market is anticipated to enlarge in two years’ time. As a result of the decrease in demand for the new shipping vessel, the price will considerably go down. Assuming that ocean carriers are to be subjected to an American tax rate of thirty five percent (35%), using a nine percent (9%) rate of discount, and anticipated every day hire rates foretold by analysts, the agreed upon lease does not seem to translate into profits. This is because of the large investment that was made at the initial stages (Berezin

Gun- Carry Permits in New York City Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gun- Carry Permits in New York City - Essay Example However, the real problem lies deeper than this. The dilemma is not merely limited to the possession of guns but extends to the social and economic sphere. Thus, a policy needs to be created not further restricting guns but on creating awareness and promoting responsibility when handling guns. The possession and transportation of arms in violation of the laws may result in a charge of Misdemeanor or felony filed against the person. The mandatory jail time for possession of a firearm is approximately a year or above. Despite these strict policies, the alarming increase in crime rate and in the number of school shootings remains the most disturbing factor. Beginning from the incident of Whitman in the tower of the University of Texas to S. H. Cho's firing in Virginia Tech; all such incidents point at the same thing. This is the easy access of guns and the confused psychological mindset. These gory events in the history of America are serious issues and must be treated as such. After Vi rginia Tech shootings, the people were able to ban the purchase of guns on the basis that Cho had acquired it. However, there are other opportunities that people can avail in order to possess a gun legally. This includes purchasing them at gun fairs without having to get their history checked. This makes for a serious drawback in the policies through which anyone can go and purchase a gun. A shocking fact observed here suggests that the severity of laws and policies does not seem to be playing a role in hampering crimes. Implementation of the written policies and action upon them is requisite to decline such acts. Prevalence of law and order along with practical implementation of the written word alone can put an end to such issues (School Shootings and Violence 2012). The tug of war between crime and the defense seems not only to be triggered by the wave of terrorism but it is constantly fanned by the raising racist sentiments which are a direct product of terrorism. Since 9/11 a g reat number of terrorist activities have been viewed in the US. At some places Muslims were killed by white racists and at some whites were killed by Muslim Racists thus continuing the blame game. Moreover the collapsing economy, relapse of the governmental infrastructure and the unrest created as a bi-product constantly boosts up the crime rate. Slums are increasing day by day; unemployment and an empty stomach are capable of a lot more than the guns can do. Some places of the posh NYC have become red zones due to the increasing accumulation of unemployed people turned into criminals. Some analysts have argued that it is not the total number of guns in circulation that increases gun violence, but the carrying of guns in high-risk places at a high risk time. Thus, equal economic opportunities must be ensured in order to cultivate a peaceful environment. Moreover, equality with respect to ethnicity and race will also encourage harmony (Sherman, Shaw, Rogan & National Institute of Jus tice 1995). It seems to be a natural phenomenon to release frustration whenever and wherever an outlet is found. In this relation numerous incidents have been reported. On March 8 2012 it was reported in the New York Times that â€Å"no one has been able to explain why a Spanish teacher who had been fired from the Episcopal School of Jacksonville fatally shot the head of the school and himself with an assault rifle.†

Prevention of Violence in American Society Assignment

Prevention of Violence in American Society - Assignment Example Chante seems to regret her decision. It is because she confessed to the jury that she tampered with the evidence and did not commit murder. It gets also seen that after she had pulled into her garage, she lowered the door and sat down and then began crying and apologizing to Biggs who was moaning. Therefore, even though she made a call to help herself, we see her crying and regretting her decisions and apologizing to Biggs. She also blabbed, â€Å"Lord, I’m sorry, what do I do?† (MSNBC 2). Thus, it is evident that she regretted her decisions. First, once she hit the man, she could call 911 and ask for help from the police or any ambulance in order to save. Biggs could have survived because as she drove into her garage he continued to lose some blood; hence, making it more difficult to save his life. Alternatively, she could have driven to a nearby fire station, hospital or police station instead of driving towards her garage where she could not find any help. Therefore, the only step that Chante could have taken in that situation involves the police or other parties like health officers and not involving her friends who have no idea on handling the case. In this case, she could have saved Biggs’s life and get pardon on the jury for trying to save the Biggs’s life that got lost due to excess bleeding. The today’s technology could have changed the situation. The presence of CCTV in town makes it easier to monitor what went on in a certain event. The police could have easily identified the incident and follow her before she could do anything to tamper the evidence. The CCTV will also show the footage and determine how she reacted all that time after she hit the man and determine her real intentions in the event. Thus, the jury would have heard more evidence and change the verdict in the case, and the jury could have taken less time to determine the truth of the case.

A Critical Analysis Of A Satirical Piece Essay Example for Free

A Critical Analysis Of A Satirical Piece Essay The piece of satirical work that Ive chosen to analyse is a poem written by Carol Ann Duffy, a very successful female poet. The poem itself is called Poet For Our Times, it was written approximately ten to fifteen years ago, at the time she was working in a comprehensive school running workshops. This poem bore some personal significance to Duffy because her brother was working as the news editor for the Daily Mirror. The poem is written in the first person, told from the point of view of a newspaper headline writer. The poem attempts to satirize the culture of the time and there is an underlying political and social contemporary context. The use of the headlines is satirizing the un-poetic nature of the headlines and therefore the newspapers. Duffy also uses the content of the headlines referring to the conservative government of the time in an attempt to satirize both the governments effectiveness; and the private lives of the more significant figures in the government, such as Cecil Parkinson, CECIL-KEAYS ROW SHOCK TELLS EYETIE WAITER. See more: how to write a good critical analysis essay This headline tells of a row between the politician and his secretary Keays who he allegedly had a love child with. This is satirizing his inability to stick to his marriage vows, so in using this headline she succeeds in exposing the weakness of Cecil Parkinson for another woman, other than his wife. This headline also feature a term which wouldnt be understood in this day, that is, EYETIE This is a racial slang term for Italian, which originated during the Second World War when Italy formed an alliance with Germany. The derogatory term is satirizing the racist nature of many English men during the time the poem was written, I think that this is an attempt to satirize this feature of the late nineteen eighties English man and his folly into racial slur. The narrator thinks very highly of himself and he even goes as far as to say that he thinks he is a, Poet for our times. Whereas in actual fact he isnt and this is what Duffy is satirizing, his high opinion of himself which is unjustified, as in fact he merely writes punchy lines in order to try and sell more papers for the daily paper that he works for. I think that another aspect of the headline writers life that Duffy is satirizing is the pub culture of him and of his working class friends and peers. I think this stands out due to short phrases in each stanza, which are read as pub talk, for example, all-right-squire. I think that this talk could be the narrator talking to either a landlord or lady or his friends. The pub talk continues throughout the poem and I think that this implies that the man doesnt just go to the pub for a swift half, but more like for a heavy drinking session. I think that this is implied because the man says, My shout In the following stanza that implies that it is his turn to pay for a round of drinks. Then two stanzas later another drink is asked for, this is implied when he says, make that a scotch, ta. This implies that he isnt merely in the pub for a quick drink, but that he is a heavy drinker as he is changing his drink to a spirit. I think that this satirization is in order to depict the weakness of the narrator to alcohol and the unhealthy lifestyle. I think that she is trying to make the point that working class men should spend less time in the pub, and possibly more with their family if theyre married or partaking in some kind of recreational activity, such as using a local health club or playing five a side football. In conclusion to the points I have made I think that Duffys poem is very successful in exposing human follies and weaknesses and trying toi change the cultural approach of working class men of the time.

Optimal Economic Uncertainty Index Test

Optimal Economic Uncertainty Index Test CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY AND EMPERICAL RESULT OFÂ  OPTIMAL ECONOMIC UNCERTAINTY INDEX 4.0 Introduction This chapter discussed about the methodology, data analysis and the results obtained from different tests for Optimal Economic Uncertainty Index. The generalized method of moments (GMM) parameter is using to estimate the benchmark parameters for the small structural model following by the grid search method. Lastly this chapter will closing by a conclusion. 4.1 Model Specification of OEUI The optimal economic uncertainty index is using the small structural model which is described by Svensson (2000 as the basic idea of contemporaneous model of the economic uncertainty. The equations of small structural model is written in logarithmic form which are represent the inputs for the small structural model except the real interest rate gap, the inflation gap and the economic uncertainty index. All of the variables in this model are presenting in gap form by using potential value or equilibrium value as a benchmark to calculated the deviations of the actual value from the potential values. is the real output gap, is the inflation gap, is the real exchange rate gap, is the real interest rate gap. The equations can be written as below: (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Equation 2 is an IS curve which is explain the relationship of aggregates output, real interest rate and real exchange rate and the Equation 3 is presenting an open economy Phillips curve which is explain the relation of unemployment and inflation to derive the aggregate supply curve. Following equation 4 is a reduced form of the exchange rate which is determines the real exchange rate gap and captures the concept that a higher real interest rate gap. And Equation 5 is a monetary policy reaction function. Equation 6 is a contemporaneous economic uncertainty function. This function assumes describes the relation of economic uncertainty with the shocks of macro variables and policy variables which is output gap, inflation gap, exchange rate gap and interest rate gap. The positive signs on and indicate that the output gap mitigation and the inflation reduction could reduce economic uncertainty. However the negative signs on and indicate that the central bank increasing the exchange rate and the interest rate to reduce economic uncertainty. The origin of the theoretic model of the optimal economic uncertainty index assumes that the central bank minimize the discounted expected loss subject to the small structural model by using a set of inflation, output gap and interest rate values. Below is the model of central bank’s period loss function which is assumed to be quadratic for the inflation gap, the output gap and the interest rate gap. (7) , and stand for the weights attached to the stabilization of the real output gap, the inflation gap and the real interest rate gap. In addition, as the discount factor ÃŽ ² of the loss function of structural Eq.1 approaches unity, it can be shown that the loss becomes proportional to the expected unconditional value of the period loss function as below where is and represent the unconditional variance of the real output gap and the inflation gap, respectively. (8) The variance in the monetary policy instrument is often put in the loss function of the central bank. The unconditional variance of the real interest rate gap ( ) is mainly to prevent an unrealistic situation of high interest rate volatility. , and are the weights attributed to the stabilization of the real output gap, the inflation gap and the real interest rate gap, respectively. 4.2 Data Description This study are using the quarterly from quarter one 1994 to quarter four 2012 taken from a variety of sources which is discusses in chapter 3. The gap form data series is generated by: The real output gap (): the difference between the logged time series of the current real output and the potential real outputs, which is then multiplied by 100. The real interest rate gap (): the difference between the current real interest rate and the potential real interest rates The real exchange rate gap ( ): the differences between the logged time series of the current REER and the potential REER The inflation gap (): the difference between the current inflation rate and the potential inflation rates. The potential real output, desired inflation, real interest rate at the potential output and real exchange rate at potential output is generated by using The Hodrick–Prescott (HP) filter with a smoothing parameter (ÃŽ ») 1600. 4.3 Empirical Result The grid search method calibrates the small structural model using the generalized method of moments (GMM) parameter estimation for the benchmark parameters. The GMM method has been commonly applied to estimate small-scale macroeconomic models (Clarida et al. 1988; Gali and Gertler1999; Smets 2003). The parameters estimated from the small structural model using the GMM method are reported in Table 1. Table 1 GMM estimation of the standard macroeconomic reaction function Dependent variable Independent variable(s) Parameter China Indonesia Selected Asian countries 0.908***(0.037) 0.504***(0.056) -0.219***(0.041) -0.640***(0.074) -0.084***(0.016) -0.106***(0.029) 0.074*(0.041) 0.313***(0.031) 0.403***(0.101) 0.285***(0.078) -0.047**(0.023) -0.098***(0.018) 1.223***(0.309) 1.370***(0.500) 0.575***(0.109) 0.144*(0.085) 0.373*(0.214) 1.188***(0.101) -0.141**(0.071) -0.081***(0.030) Table 2 continued Dependent variable Independent variable(s) Parameter Thailand Selected Asian countries 0.760***(0.047) -1.185***(0.231) -0.197***(0.069) 0.077***(0.015) 0.335***(0.113) -0.023***(0.007) 1.344***(0.410) 0.107***(0.037) 0.656***(0.103) -0.112**(0.050) Source Author’s calculations using EViews software Standard errors are in parentheses. *, **, and *** denote statistical significance at the 10%, 5%and 1%levels, respectively. The list of instrumental variables for the estimates above includes lagged values of the real output gap, the inflation gap, the real interest rate gap and the real exchange rate gap. Following Table 3 shows the estimated optimal coefficients of economic uncertainty in the benchmark setting. These coefficients are globally optimal because they depend on all of the state variables. Specifically, optimized economic uncertainties are optimal only in the sense that they represent solutions to the specified constrained optimization problem. Table 3 Optimal coefficients, unconditional variances of goal variables, losses (result depend on , and ) and optimized economic uncertainty index for selected Asian countries Preference Selected Asian countries , , China Indonesia Thailand 2.95 2.95 2.50 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.40 1.45 1.45 1.90 2.95 2.95 1.584 1.141 1.220 1.190 1.116 1.109 2.460 1.800 1.726 3.389 2.708 2.760 : selected Asian countries China Indonesia Thailand Source Author’s calculations using RATS econometrics software ais . b is the contemporaneous optimal economic uncertainty index; The estimated optimal coefficients of the optimal economic uncertainty index enable to derive the optimal economic uncertainty index over the sample period. This specification includes all related endogenous variables at the optimal level, specifically the real output gap, inflation gap, real exchange rate gap and real interest rate gap. These variables are then weighted using the estimated optimal coefficients and aggregated to find the optimal economic uncertainty index. To find out the validity of the derived indexes as measures of economic uncertainty, four significant economic upheavals that garnered global notoriety are selected as benchmarks for discussion: the Asian financial crisis (July, 1997), the dot-com bubble (March, 2000), the subprime crisis (Quarter 4, 2007) and the global financial crisis (September, 2008). The computed time series of the optimal economic uncertainty index for all of the selected countries are stationary. Figure 4.1 Optimal economic uncertainty index for China The notations (a, b, c and d) represent four economic upheavals that garnered global notoriety which is a stated for the Asian financial crisis (July, 1997), b stated for the dot-com bubble (March, 2000), c stated for the subprime crisis (Quarter 4, 2007), and d stated for the global financial crisis (September, 2008). The global recession periods (the shaded areas) described by the IMF are 1998, 2001–2003 and 2008–2009. (Source Author’s calculations) Optimal economic uncertainty index (OEUI) in China has been through different phases of development during the year 1994 to 2012. A higher positive value of OEUI was shown on the Asian crisis and the dot-com bubble. Afterward, a higher MCI higher positive value of OEUI also shown between the subprime crisis and the global financial crisis on year 2008. Figure 4.2 Optimal economic uncertainty index for Indonesia The notations (a, b, c and d) represent four economic upheavals that garnered global notoriety which is a stated for the Asian financial crisis (July, 1997), b stated for the dot-com bubble (March, 2000), c stated for the subprime crisis (Quarter 4, 2007), and d stated for the global financial crisis (September, 2008). The global recession periods (the shaded areas) described by the IMF are 1998, 2001–2003 and 2008–2009. (Source Author’s calculations) Figure 4.2 shows the optimal economic uncertainty index (OEUI) for Indonesia. According to figure 4.2, Optimal economic uncertainty index (OEUI) in Indonesia has been through different phases of development during the year 1994 to 2012. It was a sharply drop of MCI during the Asian crisis. Thereafter, a higher OEUI was shown on the dot-com bubble during the year 2000. Anyway, OEUI of Indonesia merely stable during the subprime crisis and the global financial crisis. Figure 4.3 Optimal economic uncertainty index for Thailand The notations (a, b, c and d) represent four economic upheavals that garnered global notoriety which is a stated for the Asian financial crisis (July, 1997), b stated for the dot-com bubble (March, 2000), c stated for the subprime crisis (Quarter 4, 2007), and d stated for the global financial crisis (September, 2008). The global recession periods (the shaded areas) described by the IMF are 1998, 2001–2003 and 2008–2009. (Source Author’s calculations) Figure 4.3 shows the optimal economic uncertainty index (OEUI) for Thailand. According to figure 4.3, Optimal economic uncertainty index (OEUI) in Thailand has been through different phases of development during the year 1994 to 2012. It was a rose of OEUI during the Asian crisis. Thereafter, a negatif value of OEUI was shown on the dot-com bubble during the year 2000, the subprime crisis and the global financial crisis.

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders This dissertation questions the increase in the female prison population in recent years. It then goes on to outline some reasons against imprisoning women, looking at the alternatives to custodial sentences, and the past and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be considered over and above custodial sentences as these may be more appropriate for the needs of women. (2) Introduction In the last few years there has been a widespread concern for the numbers of women that are imprisoned. Between 1993 and 2003, the female population increased by almost 200% . Many have concerns about this, for example, The Howard League for Penal Reform published its submission to the United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing serious concern at the increase in the use of prison for women and the added problems they face in custody. The Howard League for Penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 March 2005, almost treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increased by almost 3,000 as most women are sent to prison for only short periods. The number of women on remand has also increased by about a third. This has meant that women’s imprisonment has come under the spotlight for both the public and academics alike. In response to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the majority of women there have been attempts to find alternatives to imprisonment that are more appropriate. There has been much concern about the greater numbers of women being imprisoned for several reasons. In the past there has been a reluctance to see punishment as gender specific. As Carlen (2002:3) points out: Theories of punishment are usually expected to be gender-neutral: the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the punishment is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the time.’ But recently, for example, there has been increasing recognition that the criminal profile of women prisoners is different to that of their male counterparts, and the rehabilitative needs of these women are also different to imprisoned men. In addition the needs of the children of some of these incarcerated women are beginning to be recognised. This dissertation will look at some of these issues that are of growing concern, firstly outlining the main reasons why the female prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences are inappropriate for the needs of women. It will then go on to consider a few alternatives to custody that may be more appropriate. In doing so it is necessary to take a look at the policy in this area to establish the problems and make recommendations for the future. Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that are asked each time women’s imprisonment comes under the spotlight: Is it necessary to sends many women to prison? Are women treated differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? Why are so many poor, black and mentally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998: 2). This dissertation will attempt to explore some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a vast disparity between the present system of women’s imprisonment and the needs of the women being sent to them, and in doing so will examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women. It is important to consider gender differentials at this point. Carlen (2002: 7) puts forward the question: ‘Are women punished differently to men?’ and in response suggests that there are six main bodies of literature that attempt to answer this question. Firstly, there is the historical literature which focuses on the quantity and quality of women’s punishments; Secondly, sociological literature which places the experience of women’s punishment within the wider framework of control, arguing that women appear less frequently in the courts as they are ‘more closely constrained by informal controls of family, factory, fashion, men and medicine’ (Carlen, 2002: 7). Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or less harshly than men; criminological studies attempt to ascertain and assess the quality of the confinement experienced by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by Carlen, which argues fore variety of reasons that women receive a harsher punishment than that of their male counterparts; and, the literature that has responded to this criticism, for example that provided by the official Home Office Inspectorates. It can be ascertained from the wide review of this literature that firm evidence that supports the fact that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, ‘In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no strong statistical evidence to support claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.’(Carlen, 2002: 7). In addition to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender-bias as separate from the bias relating to class or race. However, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002: 8) argues that although the majority of women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002: 8), certain women, in particular those ‘who have been brought up in the states institutional care, have transient lifestyles, have their own children already in state guardianship, are living out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnic minority groups-are more likely to proceed through the criminal justice system and end up in prison.’ Although this argument does not contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels Thorpe: The likelihood that female offenders may overall receive more lenient treatment than males does not rule out the possibility that individual women receive unusually harsh treatment.’ (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994: 4) As can be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of crime, criminality and the criminal justice system. Gender stereotypes can inform decisions as to whether person has committed a crime, whether they should be prosecuted and found guilty for a crime, and indeed, gender affects how a person might be punished and how this may affect the criminal and society. Criminal law tends to render women as passive victims, and when they appear as criminal they can either treated as irrational, acting under external factors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 2000:25). Despite this, it’s only recently that these gender dimensions have been considered, as Nicolson points out, ‘Traditionally criminal law has been analysed and taught as if it’s rules are gender blind and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant’(from Nicolson and Bobbing’s, 2002: 1). This gender-blind approach to crime and the criminal justice system has now been recognised and analysed by feminists and criminologists alike. Fox (2002) urges that it is crucial for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this offers a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has focussed on women who kill, for example, but has failed to put forward a suggestion for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to redress this imbalance. (3) Explanations of the Increase in the Female Prison Population In looking at the explanations underlying the steep increase in women’s imprisonment in recent years, the study undertaken by Carlen(1998) offers some useful points to consider. She accumulated several opinions in her study which serve to add understanding. A female Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher despite no significant rise in the number of reported crime due to several reasons; firstly, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, ‘well, if you women want equality, you’ve got to take it’; secondly, it could be due to the rising pressure on women in society to cope financially without a partner leading to more crime being committed; thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past have been more likely to go down the route of being admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are still being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments. Carlen summarises the responses given as thus: (1) more women are committing violent crimes; (2) more women who would not have previously gone to prison are going due to increasing involvement with drugs; (3)more black women are going to prison so racism may be the key; or (4)prison is being used to incarcerate the same social categories for women that it always has – the destitute, the most obviously gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed – but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories have increased with growing economic inequality (Carlen, 1998: 51). Another explanation is that women are becoming more violent, indeed the proportion of female prisoners under sentence for crimes of violence against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present less than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998: 52) supports this view: ‘It is undoubtedly the case that the level of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women.’ However, he also points out that, ‘the female prison population has †¦ risen steeply whilst serious convictions have actually fallen’; suggesting that this may be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen later, it is much more likely that it is the increase in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more likely to offer an explanation. It is possible that racism is the key to increases in the female prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points out: In June 1996, there were 10,200 people from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities accounted for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the female population compared with 6 per cent of the male and female populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998: 54). However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and it’s impossible to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say that it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious. Carlen (1998: 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence rather than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more quickly than a male purely because the range of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some way to increase the numbers of female offenders serving custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and social status of women: †¦ despite exaggerated claims about increasingly violent and addiction driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990’s can best be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who have traditionally been more vulnerable to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998: 56) (4) Reasons Against Imprisoning Women The Feminist Response In looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is important to look at the general models of punishment that exist today. Fox (2000: 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment – retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the level of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this ‘just desert’ approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures proportionality between crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process. However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of consideration of individual factors such as poverty, unemployment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an autonomous member of society. Similarly, the deterrence model focuses on rational autonomous action through its aim of discouraging crime through the threat and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals. Fox (2000: 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more promising from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure conformity through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model can be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, ‘treatment oriented approaches can involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment’. The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation theory whish aims for protective sentencing. By imposing longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may become unable to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may have greater impact on women. Therefore it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed. Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, ‘enables us to forge links between two critical projects: the masculinise one, of analysing the emergence of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential impact of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.’(Howe, 1994, see footnote 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is typical of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such as electronic tagging, the forced separation of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as community service and probation orders that require the body to work in particular ways, he comments that: The pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the mark it makes and traces leaves less visible; but the exercise of coercive discipline over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are still at the heart of punishment’(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000: 58). Fox puts forward that this can apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. Focus on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating mothers from their children and strip searching tend to force people to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal nature of the State’s criminal justice system. Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionally more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or absolute or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000: 60) puts forward a potential reason for this: ‘†¦the majority of women †¦ in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or welfare regulation than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the court’s readiness to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is unnatural or violent’ The Specific Needs of Women This section will outline some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with family and mental health issues. Family It could be argued that women’s identity as mothers is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (2000:62) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly. This highlights how gender roles can have an effect on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe confirm that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender roles, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the criminal justice system. Carlen (1998: 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She found that the most resounding response related to women’s role within the family both in terms of ideology and function. This was described mostly in terms of women’s role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful mix of biological ties, emotional bonds and family ideologies can affect a woman’s prison experience (Carlen, 1998:74). One respondent in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the knowledge that his children are being looked after and the rent will be paid by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and often their children to foster care. Another commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affects them far more. In regards to remand, one respondent suggested that, ‘If a woman has a baby while she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the baby would be taken off her. She’s being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage†¦ Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a Mother and Baby Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to.’ (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998: 79) Contemporary Criminal Justice policies can have a detrimental impact on families, in terms of both the impact of a mother’s imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that female offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the ‘unseen victims of a mother’s incarceration’. Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the effects of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may produce serious negative effects for the children. They found that the forcible separation and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioural problems for the children, such as aggression, poor school performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addition to this, children of incarcerated parents area risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dresser’s 1991 research notes that, ‘children of inmates are five to six times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves’ (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132). It can be hard to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the potential effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should certainly be considered when debating women’s imprisonment. Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their families: Separations †¦ are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in intact families †¦ Many of these families and children are vulnerable even more to further problems and behavioural disorders subsequent tithe separation itself. The latter may increase social, financial, or personal difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope. As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personal and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further compounded if the relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affecting the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions made later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered. Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been made in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their children’s safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 135) Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers – estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by Dodge and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bathe separation of mother and child. Mental Health The assumption that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists may argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the normal women’s body could be perceived as intrinsically ‘abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause result in ‘hormone imbalance’ which suggests that the women may be imbalanced at these times (From Fox, 2002: 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as inappropriate for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later. The Efficacy of Prison Carlen (1998: 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care effectively for those inmates that pose special problems of need, danger and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most prisons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restrictive security measures, was ‘damage limitation’ rather than equipping inmates to lead good and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998: 149) ‘†¦the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great †¦ A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount.’ (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998:151) The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that: firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women break the law are different to those in which man commit crime; secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be rooted in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the ‘proper’ role of women in society; and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been subject to informal and ‘anti-social’ controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have affected their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a ‘double regulation’(Car len,1998: 153). Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to public which means they must be incarcerated as a matter of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, ‘Almost certainly they will require help of some description – but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199: 153) In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, ‘Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. Custody should be reserved as punishment for very serious offences.’ (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997: 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view. (5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders As can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a better medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal Justice System: The Howard League for Penal Reform is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and violent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders community based interventions that make amends for the wrong done and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, Speaker for The Howard League, 2005). In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is important to identify the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences. Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punishment (1997: 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with other punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of ‘unfair’ or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison. Thirdly, there is the concept of ‘net-widening’ based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been diverted to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some believe that without the backup of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of using alternatives to custody. Electronic Monitoring Sections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice Act (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of starting up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have requested to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, founder of the Offenders Tag Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the appalling nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997: 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. According to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which cost the tax payer  £564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997: 3 2). However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic monitoring may be recognised as a flexible and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a programme of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonment Special Units for female offenders who are mothers As can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist provision for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an opportunity for female offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing supp Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders This dissertation questions the increase in the female prison population in recent years. It then goes on to outline some reasons against imprisoning women, looking at the alternatives to custodial sentences, and the past and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be considered over and above custodial sentences as these may be more appropriate for the needs of women. (2) Introduction In the last few years there has been a widespread concern for the numbers of women that are imprisoned. Between 1993 and 2003, the female population increased by almost 200% . Many have concerns about this, for example, The Howard League for Penal Reform published its submission to the United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing serious concern at the increase in the use of prison for women and the added problems they face in custody. The Howard League for Penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 March 2005, almost treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increased by almost 3,000 as most women are sent to prison for only short periods. The number of women on remand has also increased by about a third. This has meant that women’s imprisonment has come under the spotlight for both the public and academics alike. In response to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the majority of women there have been attempts to find alternatives to imprisonment that are more appropriate. There has been much concern about the greater numbers of women being imprisoned for several reasons. In the past there has been a reluctance to see punishment as gender specific. As Carlen (2002:3) points out: Theories of punishment are usually expected to be gender-neutral: the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the punishment is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the time.’ But recently, for example, there has been increasing recognition that the criminal profile of women prisoners is different to that of their male counterparts, and the rehabilitative needs of these women are also different to imprisoned men. In addition the needs of the children of some of these incarcerated women are beginning to be recognised. This dissertation will look at some of these issues that are of growing concern, firstly outlining the main reasons why the female prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences are inappropriate for the needs of women. It will then go on to consider a few alternatives to custody that may be more appropriate. In doing so it is necessary to take a look at the policy in this area to establish the problems and make recommendations for the future. Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that are asked each time women’s imprisonment comes under the spotlight: Is it necessary to sends many women to prison? Are women treated differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? Why are so many poor, black and mentally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998: 2). This dissertation will attempt to explore some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a vast disparity between the present system of women’s imprisonment and the needs of the women being sent to them, and in doing so will examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women. It is important to consider gender differentials at this point. Carlen (2002: 7) puts forward the question: ‘Are women punished differently to men?’ and in response suggests that there are six main bodies of literature that attempt to answer this question. Firstly, there is the historical literature which focuses on the quantity and quality of women’s punishments; Secondly, sociological literature which places the experience of women’s punishment within the wider framework of control, arguing that women appear less frequently in the courts as they are ‘more closely constrained by informal controls of family, factory, fashion, men and medicine’ (Carlen, 2002: 7). Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or less harshly than men; criminological studies attempt to ascertain and assess the quality of the confinement experienced by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by Carlen, which argues fore variety of reasons that women receive a harsher punishment than that of their male counterparts; and, the literature that has responded to this criticism, for example that provided by the official Home Office Inspectorates. It can be ascertained from the wide review of this literature that firm evidence that supports the fact that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, ‘In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no strong statistical evidence to support claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.’(Carlen, 2002: 7). In addition to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender-bias as separate from the bias relating to class or race. However, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002: 8) argues that although the majority of women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002: 8), certain women, in particular those ‘who have been brought up in the states institutional care, have transient lifestyles, have their own children already in state guardianship, are living out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnic minority groups-are more likely to proceed through the criminal justice system and end up in prison.’ Although this argument does not contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels Thorpe: The likelihood that female offenders may overall receive more lenient treatment than males does not rule out the possibility that individual women receive unusually harsh treatment.’ (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994: 4) As can be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of crime, criminality and the criminal justice system. Gender stereotypes can inform decisions as to whether person has committed a crime, whether they should be prosecuted and found guilty for a crime, and indeed, gender affects how a person might be punished and how this may affect the criminal and society. Criminal law tends to render women as passive victims, and when they appear as criminal they can either treated as irrational, acting under external factors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 2000:25). Despite this, it’s only recently that these gender dimensions have been considered, as Nicolson points out, ‘Traditionally criminal law has been analysed and taught as if it’s rules are gender blind and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant’(from Nicolson and Bobbing’s, 2002: 1). This gender-blind approach to crime and the criminal justice system has now been recognised and analysed by feminists and criminologists alike. Fox (2002) urges that it is crucial for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this offers a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has focussed on women who kill, for example, but has failed to put forward a suggestion for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to redress this imbalance. (3) Explanations of the Increase in the Female Prison Population In looking at the explanations underlying the steep increase in women’s imprisonment in recent years, the study undertaken by Carlen(1998) offers some useful points to consider. She accumulated several opinions in her study which serve to add understanding. A female Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher despite no significant rise in the number of reported crime due to several reasons; firstly, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, ‘well, if you women want equality, you’ve got to take it’; secondly, it could be due to the rising pressure on women in society to cope financially without a partner leading to more crime being committed; thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past have been more likely to go down the route of being admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are still being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments. Carlen summarises the responses given as thus: (1) more women are committing violent crimes; (2) more women who would not have previously gone to prison are going due to increasing involvement with drugs; (3)more black women are going to prison so racism may be the key; or (4)prison is being used to incarcerate the same social categories for women that it always has – the destitute, the most obviously gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed – but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories have increased with growing economic inequality (Carlen, 1998: 51). Another explanation is that women are becoming more violent, indeed the proportion of female prisoners under sentence for crimes of violence against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present less than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998: 52) supports this view: ‘It is undoubtedly the case that the level of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women.’ However, he also points out that, ‘the female prison population has †¦ risen steeply whilst serious convictions have actually fallen’; suggesting that this may be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen later, it is much more likely that it is the increase in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more likely to offer an explanation. It is possible that racism is the key to increases in the female prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points out: In June 1996, there were 10,200 people from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities accounted for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the female population compared with 6 per cent of the male and female populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998: 54). However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and it’s impossible to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say that it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious. Carlen (1998: 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence rather than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more quickly than a male purely because the range of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some way to increase the numbers of female offenders serving custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and social status of women: †¦ despite exaggerated claims about increasingly violent and addiction driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990’s can best be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who have traditionally been more vulnerable to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998: 56) (4) Reasons Against Imprisoning Women The Feminist Response In looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is important to look at the general models of punishment that exist today. Fox (2000: 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment – retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the level of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this ‘just desert’ approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures proportionality between crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process. However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of consideration of individual factors such as poverty, unemployment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an autonomous member of society. Similarly, the deterrence model focuses on rational autonomous action through its aim of discouraging crime through the threat and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals. Fox (2000: 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more promising from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure conformity through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model can be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, ‘treatment oriented approaches can involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment’. The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation theory whish aims for protective sentencing. By imposing longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may become unable to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may have greater impact on women. Therefore it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed. Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, ‘enables us to forge links between two critical projects: the masculinise one, of analysing the emergence of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential impact of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.’(Howe, 1994, see footnote 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is typical of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such as electronic tagging, the forced separation of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as community service and probation orders that require the body to work in particular ways, he comments that: The pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the mark it makes and traces leaves less visible; but the exercise of coercive discipline over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are still at the heart of punishment’(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000: 58). Fox puts forward that this can apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. Focus on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating mothers from their children and strip searching tend to force people to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal nature of the State’s criminal justice system. Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionally more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or absolute or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000: 60) puts forward a potential reason for this: ‘†¦the majority of women †¦ in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or welfare regulation than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the court’s readiness to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is unnatural or violent’ The Specific Needs of Women This section will outline some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with family and mental health issues. Family It could be argued that women’s identity as mothers is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (2000:62) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly. This highlights how gender roles can have an effect on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe confirm that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender roles, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the criminal justice system. Carlen (1998: 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She found that the most resounding response related to women’s role within the family both in terms of ideology and function. This was described mostly in terms of women’s role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful mix of biological ties, emotional bonds and family ideologies can affect a woman’s prison experience (Carlen, 1998:74). One respondent in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the knowledge that his children are being looked after and the rent will be paid by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and often their children to foster care. Another commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affects them far more. In regards to remand, one respondent suggested that, ‘If a woman has a baby while she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the baby would be taken off her. She’s being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage†¦ Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a Mother and Baby Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to.’ (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998: 79) Contemporary Criminal Justice policies can have a detrimental impact on families, in terms of both the impact of a mother’s imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that female offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the ‘unseen victims of a mother’s incarceration’. Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the effects of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may produce serious negative effects for the children. They found that the forcible separation and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioural problems for the children, such as aggression, poor school performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addition to this, children of incarcerated parents area risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dresser’s 1991 research notes that, ‘children of inmates are five to six times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves’ (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132). It can be hard to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the potential effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should certainly be considered when debating women’s imprisonment. Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their families: Separations †¦ are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in intact families †¦ Many of these families and children are vulnerable even more to further problems and behavioural disorders subsequent tithe separation itself. The latter may increase social, financial, or personal difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope. As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personal and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further compounded if the relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affecting the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions made later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered. Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been made in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their children’s safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 135) Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers – estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by Dodge and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bathe separation of mother and child. Mental Health The assumption that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists may argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the normal women’s body could be perceived as intrinsically ‘abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause result in ‘hormone imbalance’ which suggests that the women may be imbalanced at these times (From Fox, 2002: 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as inappropriate for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later. The Efficacy of Prison Carlen (1998: 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care effectively for those inmates that pose special problems of need, danger and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most prisons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restrictive security measures, was ‘damage limitation’ rather than equipping inmates to lead good and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998: 149) ‘†¦the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great †¦ A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount.’ (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998:151) The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that: firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women break the law are different to those in which man commit crime; secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be rooted in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the ‘proper’ role of women in society; and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been subject to informal and ‘anti-social’ controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have affected their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a ‘double regulation’(Car len,1998: 153). Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to public which means they must be incarcerated as a matter of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, ‘Almost certainly they will require help of some description – but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199: 153) In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, ‘Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. Custody should be reserved as punishment for very serious offences.’ (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997: 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view. (5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders As can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a better medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal Justice System: The Howard League for Penal Reform is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and violent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders community based interventions that make amends for the wrong done and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, Speaker for The Howard League, 2005). In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is important to identify the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences. Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punishment (1997: 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with other punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of ‘unfair’ or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison. Thirdly, there is the concept of ‘net-widening’ based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been diverted to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some believe that without the backup of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of using alternatives to custody. Electronic Monitoring Sections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice Act (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of starting up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have requested to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, founder of the Offenders Tag Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the appalling nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997: 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. According to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which cost the tax payer  £564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997: 3 2). However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic monitoring may be recognised as a flexible and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a programme of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonment Special Units for female offenders who are mothers As can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist provision for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an opportunity for female offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing supp